A Year of Glory
June 1862 - June 1863
The Peninsula Campaign
On July 27, 1861, Major General George Brinton McClellan assumed command of the disorganized and demoralized Union Army of the Potomac. The Battle of Manassas (Bull Run) had not gone according to anyone's expectations, North or South, but the Union Army had been beaten. By replacing General Irvin McDowell, President Abraham Lincoln hoped to restore order to the chaos. Washington, D.C. was swarming with troops who had retreated from the battlefield, some thirty miles to the west, and McClellan's task was to recreate a cohesive, fighting unit.
Throughout the fall and winter of 1861, he organized, trained, and equipped what was, by the spring of 1862, the finest fighting organization the United States had ever seen. In fact, McClellan had done all that could be expected of him, with one important exception. He had yet to lead those fine troops into battle, and Lincoln was anxious for him to do so.
For the South, General Joseph Eagleston Johnston commanded the Confederate Army of the Potomac, headquartered at Centreville, Virginia, just east of the Manassas battlefield. With no battles to fight, Johnston spent his days, like McClellan, preparing his troops "for active service by diligent instruction." He was concerned, however, by the proximity of his base to the ever growing Union Army.
In February, 1862, Johnston discussed his concerns with President Jefferson Davis. Johnston felt that his supply base at Centreville was much too exposed to a rapid advance by McClellan, and requested permission to withdraw. Debate went on for several weeks until reports of Federal troop activity in early March prompted Davis to direct the relocation.
By then, Johnston was convinced he was on the verge of being overrun. He ordered his men to carry away as much as they could and burn the remaining supplies. As his warehouses went up in smoke, Johnston moved his army south across the Rappahannock River. The materiel loss was a tragedy to a country that would spend the war with a constant shortage of critical supplies
In Washington, Lincoln was getting impatient. His repeated requests for a campaign plan from McClellan, were ignored. In fact, in December he had submitted his own plan, calling for a direct attack upon Manassas Junction from Washington, accompanied by a flank attack 20 miles down the Potomac to the Occoquan Creek, then northwest to Manassas. McClellan, forced to respond, proposed moving the army down the Potomac to Urbana, in effect, shifting the theater of operations away from Washington and towards Richmond. After considerable debate, and further delay, the President, the Cabinet, and Congress approved McClellan's plan.
On March 8, Lincoln issued General War Order No. 3. It called for McClellan to lead the Army of the Potomac down the Potomac to the Chesapeake Bay, no later than the 18th of March. It stipulated that Washington be protected at all times, and rebel guns and obstructions on the Potomac be removed. It also called for full cooperation between the Army and the Navy.
As luck would have it, Johnston evacuated Centreville and Manassas Junction on March 9. McClellan marched his army to Fairfax Court House, halfway to Centreville. Allowing the rebels to slip away unmolested did nothing to win McClellan any friends back in Washington, but he had at last taken the field. With the Confederate Army now south of the Rappahannock, McClellan modified his plan of attack. Instead of Urbana, he would establish his base at Fortress Monroe, and move up the peninsula of Virginia to Richmond.
On March 13, 1862, McClellan proposed the Peninsula Campaign, and it was accepted the same day. It was not what either Lincoln or McClellan would have preferred, but it was agreed to all the same. The transports which had assembled at Annapolis for the move to Urbana, were moved to Alexandria, and the embarkation of the troops began.
The first phase of the campaign required the capture of Yorktown, 25 miles northwest of Ft. Monroe, and the site of the climactic battle of the Revolutionary War. The town was situated on the York River, which formed the north coast of the Peninsula. Once Yorktown was captured, McClellan planned to transfer his base of operations to West Point, only 25 miles from Richmond.
The southern coast of the Peninsula was formed by the James River. McClellan intended to use both rivers to supply his army as it worked its way towards the Confederate capital. The problem was that across the James from Ft. Monroe was the naval base of Norfolk, which was still in Confederate hands. McClellan had assumed that the Federal Navy could control the James River and render Norfolk unimportant. What he didn't count on was the Confederate ironclad "Virginia."
The "Virginia," known more commonly by her prewar name "Merrimac," came sailing out of Norfolk on March 8. She rammed and sank the U.S. frigate "Cumberland" and shelled the "Congress," forcing her to run aground. Darkness closed the action, but "Virginia" intended to do more damage the next day.
On Sunday, March 9, as Johnston was evacuating Manassas Junction, and plans for the Peninsula campaign were being put into action, the "Virginia" sailed into Hampton Bay, and was met by the U.S. ironclad "Monitor." All day long, the world's first "clash of the ironclads" went on, with the two ships coming into contact with each other several times. By the end of the day, however, both were still afloat. The "Virginia," badly damaged, returned to Norfolk for repairs.
Although it would be a month before the "Virginia" could sail again, the James River remained closed to Federal shipping. As long as the "Virginia" remained a threat, the U.S. Navy couldn't cooperate on any attack on Yorktown. McClellan's plan for a joint Army-Navy assault was being foiled.
While Johnston was moving to the Rappahannock, President Davis was meeting with his chief military advisor, General Robert E. Lee, to decide what to do next. If McClellan was going to concentrate his army on the Peninsula, rather than in Northern Virginia, Johnston must be moved to confront him. In early April, the Departments of Norfolk and of the Peninsula were created and placed under Johnston, giving him the largest Confederate Army in the field.
McClellan started his Army of the Potomac moving on April 4. One column, directed at Yorktown, included Porter's and Hamilton's divisions of Heintzelman's III U.S. Corps, and Sedgewick's division of Sumner's II Corps. A second column, headed for Williamsburg on the James River side of the peninsula, consisted of Smith's and Couch's divisions of Keyes' IV U.S. Corps. The first day the columns advanced about ten miles.
On April 5, the southern column was supposed to reach the Halfway House, a landmark about five miles west of Yorktown. From that point, they would be able to cut off any Confederate retreat from Yorktown. They got as far as Lee's Mill, five miles short of their objective, when they ran into what appeared to be a strongly defended position. Unable to decide what to do, they encamped for the night.
The northern column, under General Heintzelman, arrived at the junction of the Warwick and Yorktown roads, within sight of the Yorktown fortifications, when they came under fire. They deployed for battle, in the pouring rain, and skirmished with the rebels throughout the afternoon. As night fell, they encamped and waited for orders.
The Confederate commander on the lower peninsula, at the time, was Major General J. Bankhead Magruder. He had designed, and partially completed, three defensive lines across the peninsula. The first of these was seven miles below Yorktown, and consisted of a system of fortifications and redoubts, or small forts. "In my opinion," said Magruder, "this advanced line, with its flank defences, might have been held with 20,000 troops." Unfortunately, until he could be reinforced, he had barely half that many.
Faced with a manpower shortage, Magruder had pulled back to the Yorktown-Warwick River line on March 1. Although longer than the first line, it had the advantage of being anchored by strong fortifications on the north side, and a series of redoubts running to the James River. In addition, a series of dams had been built which backed up the water and prevented the passage of artillery or infantry. It was at one of these - Lee's Mills - that McClellan's troops met their first obstacle.
McClellan was surprised to find an extensive defensive line at this point. "We did not know of the line of works along the Warwick. We knew that Yorktown itself was surrounded by a continuous line of earthworks, but we did not know of the line of the Warwick." Whether McClellan had expected Magruder to enclose himself in the Yorktown forts, is a matter of debate. Whatever his plan may have been, his advance was definitely stalled. His solution was a siege.
In addition to his troops on the Peninsula, McClellan expected to be joined by Irvin McDowell's I U.S. Corps. In this he was to be disappointed. Lincoln had become concerned about the safety of Washington, particularly since Stonewall Jackson was on a rampage in the Shenandoah Valley. He decided to withhold McDowell from joining McClellan.
To complicate matters, McClellan was now convinced that Johnston had already moved his forces onto the peninsula to join Magruder. Instead of outnumbering the rebels nearly four to one, he believed the rebels outnumbered him. In reality, Johnston's advance division under General D.H. Hill, was still some six days away. McClellan would remain convinced he was facing superior numbers throughout the campaign.
The siege of Yorktown, whether necessary or not, was masterfully done. McClellan had a series of fortifications and trenches built as he hauled huge siege guns up the peninsula. After nearly a month, everything was in place for the final assault. Early on the morning of May 3 the Confederate troops slipped away, just as the circle was about to close. McClellan had Yorktown, but Magruder and Johnston had not only delayed him for a month, but had escaped as well.
It wasn't until the afternoon of the 4th that McClellan sent his troops in pursuit of the retreating rebels. He established his headquarters at Yorktown and awaited events. Not expecting much action, he was surprised to learn that a battle was developing at Williamsburg, the site of Magruder's third defensive line.
Having been harassed by General Stoneman's Union cavalry, Johnston left Longstreet in command at Williamsburg and proceeded to Richmond. The battle was fought piecemeal, with no direction from either Army's commanders. General Hooker began the Union assault on the Confederate right about 7:00 A.M. on the 5th of May. Unsupported, he battled until about noon, with little success.
The remaining Union commanders formulated their own plan against the Confederate left. General Hancock was able to flank the rebels and seize some unoccupied redoubts. He was forced to withdraw in the face of a strong counterattack, which withered away when he turned his artillery on the attacking rebels.
The battle ended in the late afternoon, and throughout the night the Confederate troops continued their retreat towards Richmond. McClellan finally arrived on the battlefield late in the day, and much too late to coordinate any of the attacks. Had he arrived sooner, the Federal army may have been able to exploit Hancock's breakthrough. As it was, another opportunity was lost.
For the next three weeks, the Union Army laboriously worked its way towards Richmond. McClellan moved his headquarters and supply depot to White House, barely twenty miles from the Confederate capital, on the Pamunkey River. Norfolk, had finally been abandoned after Yorktown fell, and Union gunboats were free to operate on the James River. By May 31st, the Union lines were within half a dozen miles of Richmond, and the Confederate troops were tired of digging trenches.
General Keyes' IV U.S. Corps was encamped at Seven Pines, on the main road to Richmond, about five miles away. General Heintzelman's III U.S. Corps had followed Keyes south across the Chickahominy River. The remainder of the Federal forces, Sumner's II Corps, Porter's V Corps, and Franklin's VI Corps, were north of the river, with McClellan now headquartered at Gaine's Mill. In all, more than 100,000 U.S. troops closing in.
Johnston saw an opportunity to attack the split Union forces and defeat them in detail. On May 31st he directed Longstreet to advance down the 9 mile road which ran parallel to but north of the Williamsburg road. Longstreet would be followed by W.H.C.Whiting's division. D.H. Hill's division would go down the Williamsburg road and start the attack when Benjamin Huger's division, travelling the Charles City road further south, came up on his right. Longstreet would then come in on the Union right flank.
Unfortunately, Longstreet took the Williamsburg road by mistake, and got in front of Huger's troops. Hill got tired of waiting for Huger and started the attack on Casey's division of Keyes Corps. He drove Casey back more than half a mile to Couch's Line at the intersection of the Charles City and Williamsburg roads.
By this time Longstreet's division was arriving and a massive confusion occurred on the Williamsburg road. Only one of Longstreet's bridgades was able to come to Hill's assistance. Longstreet sent a note back to Johnston at Richmond asking for assistance from Whiting. Johnston became concerned and rode forward himself.
He came upon Whiting on the 9 mile road, directed Hood's brigade off through the woods to Seven Pines and led the remainder of Whiting's division down the road to Fair Oaks Station. He came upon General John Abercrombies' brigade of Keyes Corps and attacked it several times with little effect. Suddenly, Sumner's 2nd Union Corps hit him on the left flank.
Sumner had managed to find a small wooden bridge across the rain-swollen Chickahominy River. Told that the rickety bridge was unusable, Sumner replied, "Sir, I tell you I can cross. I am ordered." He arrived on the scene just after 5:00pm and was followed by further Union reinforcements. The Confederate attack was beaten back and as darkness came, the fighting ended.
Johnston rode forward as dusk was falling and was suddenly struck in the shoulder by a minie ball and in the chest by a shell fragment. As he was carried from the field command went to Major General Gustavus Smith.
On June 1st, Smith declined to take up the attack. General D. H. Hill tried to advance along the Williamsburg road but was violently repulsed by troops of Hooker's division. Hill called a retreat around 1:00pm and the battle came to an end.
As a result of the wounding of General Johnston, General Robert E. Lee was directed to assume command of all of the forces in the field. He immediately began assessing the results of the Battle of Seven Pines, and determined to reorganize the Confederate troops. By June 25, he was ready to go on the offensive in the series of battles known as The Seven Days.
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